BOW Genome: Conflict

The body is viewed as a servant to genes acting as a victim, plaything, battleground and vehicle. If an X chromosome is inherited from the father, the child would be a girl and if a Y chromosome is inherited from the father, the child would be a boy. A gene called DAX is on the X chormosome and the gene SRY is found on the Y chormosome which is responsible for masculine traits. One SRY defeats one DAX, but two DAXes defeat one SRY. Since females are XX and males are XY, three-quarters of all sex chromosomes are X's and one quarter Y's. Therefore, Y is vulnerable to attack by a newly evolved X gene. SRY is one of the fastest evolving genes which restores balance  to the X chromosome.   A test was done on fruit flies to increase the strength of male semen. It became so strong that the female fly died because the semen became too toxic. The placenta is seen as a parasitic takeover of the mother's body by paternal genes in the fetus. Holland beleieved that peacocks eveolved long tials to seduce females since females became more resistant to being seduced. Sexual selection is due to resistance to genes.

BOW Genome: Intelligence

Genes are not there to cause diseases. Most genes are repeated, however, the number of time of repetitions affects how we will become either we have the disease or not. For some it is the presence of the gene too many times and for others, it is the lack there of. Plomin was curious whether there was a gene for intelligence and gathered DNA samples from children with an IQ approximately 160. He found that there was a gene can IGF2R which lies in the middle of the gene. At a later time, it was recognized that there were many different kinds of intelligence such as musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, kinesthetic, etc. In a test with twins, it was shown that there is a correlation of IQ regardless of being reared together or apart. Two vital thigns that are proved in this chapter is that genetic influences are not frozen when you are born and environmental influences does affect our intelligence. 

BOW Genome: Introduction

The human genome comprises of twenty three pairs of chromosomes all of which are arranged from largest to smallest with the exception of chromosome pair number twenty three. Haig believed that each chromosome plays a different or specific role in determining who we are. Each set of chromosome, one from the mother and one from the father, has approximately thirty thousand to eighty thousand genes. the organization of chromosomes are broken into genes which are then broken into exons, then introns, codons, and finally bases. The DNA would go through replication, and translation to end up with a double helix. It woudl also be transcribed by RNA to create proteins. Many mutations are neither harmful nor beneficial.

Extra Credit Blog

In your blog please give me some feedback on last semester

What topics really confused you?


The topics that really confuse me are plants. I believe this is due to lack of background information from when I was a freshman in biology.
What topics do you feel very clear on?
Topics such as ecology and cells are easier for me since I had a foundation on which I can draw some information from, or what you would call a coat hanger.
What lab/ activity was your favorite? Why?
My favorite lab would be the osmosis and diffusion labs because my group was in charge of it. Although we did not execute the lab as well as I had hoped, I grasped the concept of water potential because of this lab. Being in charge of this lab could have been why I learned the concept better.
What lab/activity was your least favorite? Why?
My least favorite lab was the lab we did on bacteria lab because there were no gloves and we were handling bacteria.
If you could change something about the class to make it better, for instance the type of homework (not the amount) what would it be and why?
I actually don't think we need a change for the type of homework. I believe the class was stressing out because they were just transitioning into your class because in all my experiences with teachers, I never had to do online work. I understand that the concept sheet, adult signature, and blogs cover the same topic for us to have another review so we will understand the concept better. With now a semester under our belts, I believe the class will be fine and keep up with the work.

Thoughts for a Countdown

In the article " Thoughts for a Countdown", it mentions how if something is foreign, we will protect ourselves against it, eventually killing whatever that is foreign. i do believe this is true because we are so scared of what is out there after discovering practically the gist of what earth has to offer. It has become "attitude toward life, our obsession wiht disease and death, our human chauvinism" (7). It has become so built in that we will destroy most things. We always take thing to another level no matter if its good or bad. We may be too extreme. Even though with all the knowledge we have ," it has been estimated that we probably have real knowledge of only a small proportion of the microbes on earth, because most of them cannot be cultivated alone. This shows how little we assume we know and how much is out there. It does keep us on our toes as we learn new things and discover our world. 

On Societies as Organisms

In the article "On Societies as Organisms", it mentionshow other organisms, when they join together they are able to create and communicate in a way that they have one mind. It doesn't surprise me because I have see a row of ants before and a beehive. I do agree that even though we are the most social of social animals, we still fail to collaborate as a team, to work as one, to accomplish a goal. Although there are many who participate it is never a goal everyone is part of. It saddens me to think that humans, with our capabilities, cannot perform as efficiently as organisms who are much smaller than us and not as bright. It is mentioned " perhaps, however, we are linked in circuits for the storage, processing, and retrievel of information, since this appears to be the most basic universal of all human enterprises. Which is somethign I also agree with, but it would be more reassuring that one day we would be able to collaborate as one

Cell Poem

Cell, Cell, Cell, Cell, Cell

You can't seem to ring a bell

I guess it's fine. Oh well.

What is inside a cell?

I'm filled with DNA

And I'm the brain of the cell

I send out commands

to the other organelles

Don't call me fat

It's just what I do

I keep all the energy stored

and give it back to you

I break down large food

even when I am not in the mood

I digest old cells

Does that ring a bell

I'm a real powerhouse

that's real plain to see

I break down food

to release energy

I'm full of holes.

flexible and thin

i control what gets out

as well as what comes in.

nucleus; vacuole; lysosome; mitrochondria; cell membrane

Three Key Ideas from Time, Love, Memory

What I believe are the three key ideas are in the title of the book itself.

Time. In this book time represents evolution. When we look back to our past, evolution is what has happened. It is of the utmost importance for us to understand who we are and where we came from. There are many theories and from those theories there are eve nmore. Evolution plays a enormous role as it helps us figure out why we are what we are. Fro mthe famous Darwin and his birds on Galapagos Islands and their beak sizes and shapes, evolution has helped us adapt to the everchanging environment. As the passage of time continues, we are simultaneously changing every second of every day of our entire lives. It helps us determine the certain traits we possess currently and maybe predict what is to come.

Love. Love symbolizes mating. For those bacteria, plants, etc who reproduce asexually, I guess they are lucky because they wont have ot find a mate. HUmans on the other hand reproduce sexually. Without mating, there will not be the next generation and our existence would be nothing more than a memory, but rather nothing if nothing else exists to learn about us. Through mating animals reproduce and procreate to expand their population and ensure their survival. Through mating genetic material is shared and through the sharing of DNA, we are able to evolve and adapt and survive. It may be easier to reproduce asexually but if cannot acquire new genes, you may be hopeless. And with new technology its become easier to reproduce sexually with sperm banks and online dating.


Memory. Memory signifies genetics. To connect all three together is simple. THey all rely on each other to further our existence as well as many other organisms. Genetics will help us understand how traits are acquired and how we end up with our genetic make up. Mendel set the foundation of all of genetics. It helps determine who we are and how we look. With new technology today, some parents even go to the length of choosing traits for their children. This may be a bit too far because will it be their children anymore if they change these genes instead of having their child inherit traits naturally.

Extreme Organism

THERMOPHILES

       

Thermophiles are the heat loving bacteric found near hydrothermal vents and hot springs. Many of which belong to Archea. It is believed to be one of the earliest bacteria. They are classified into either oligate or faculative thermophiles. Obligate thermophiles need to be in extremely hot conditions in order to survive while faculatives may thrive in either moderate or high temperatures. Many thermophiles use dissolved sulfur or other elements as their energy source and iron as a means of respiration. It is generally considered as one that maintains life or activity at temperatures above 40 degrees celsius. However, their optimal temperature is from 50 to 70 degrees celsius. The name "thermo" and "philes" means heat loving. Thermophilic microorganisms can survive because of heir ability to produce thermophilic enzymes. Their membranes and proteins are unusually stable at these high temperatures. Some thermophili enzymes have been discovered that can maintain at least half of their specific activities at temperatures as high as 80 degrees and they are referred to as hypothermophiles. However, their enzymes might partially denature at high temperatures but have adaptive systems that allow them to renature once removed from extreme conditions. They usually live in either acidic or geothermal habitats. Thermophiles can either reproduce sexually or asexually.

REFERENCES

http://www.theguardians.com/Microbiology/gm_mbm04.htm

http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0212089/therm.htm

http://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/extreme/extremeheat/

http://www.biology.ed.ac.uk/research/groups/jdeacon/microbes/thermo.htm

Major Plant Divisions

CHAROPHYTES

They have homologous chloroplasts. Similar to land plants, they contain chlorophyll b and beta carotene as accessory pigments and thylakoids staked as grana. They also contain homologous cellulose cell walls and homologous peroxisomes, which contain anti photorespiration enzymes. Charophytes also have phragmoplasts that occur during cell divisions and homologous sperm, which are flagellated.

PTERIDOPHYTES

Vascular crytogams are the first vascular land plants. The main plant body is the sporophyte, which is differentieated into true roots, stems and leaves. Their xylem is lack of companion cells. The sporophyte reproduce by spores, borne in sporangia, sporangia are usually borne on fertile levaes called sporophylls. Pteridophytes are mostly homosporois, but some are heterosporous with microspores and megaspores. 


BRYOPHYTES

Bryophytes are simple, green, land plants. Unlike higher plants such as ferns and flowers, they lack specialized woody water conducting vessels. Their relatively delicate, nonvascular structure limits the size to which they can grow. Bryophtes are nonvascular terrestrial plants that first emerged about 420 million years ago. They form the nonmonophyletic grouping Bryophyta and include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.


GYMNOSPERMS

Gymnosperms are naked seeded spermatophytes, originated 350 millions years ago. Most of them have become extinct and some are represented by a few living species called living fossils. The main plant body is the diploid sporophyte, which is woody and perennial and differentiated into root, stem and leaves.


ANGIOSPERMS

Angiosperms are vascular plants and they have seeds like the gymnosperms. They are so advanced because of their ability to have flowers. The main advantage of the flower is to protect the plant's seed. Unlike gymnosperms, whose seeds are exposed to weather, animals, people, angiosperms have their seeds surrounded by flowers, which can offer incredible protection. Many angiosperms have an inner layer that surrounds the seed, storing food and protecting the seen from harm, and an outer layer that protects the seed from the elements or animal attacks.


REFERENCES
google images
http://www.preservearticles.com/201101102902/gymnosperms.html
http://bryophytes.plant.siu.edu/bryojustified.html
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-angiosperms.htm
http://www.preservearticles.com/201101102901/pteridophytes.html

Bacterial Transformation and Transduction

The experiment conducted by Boyer and Cohen was when E. Coli bacteria was transformed to be able ot incorporate virulent and resistant DNA from virulent strains. In transformation, DNA from the environment is absorbed into the bacterial cell. In transduction, a piece of DNA is transported in the cell by a virus. As A result of incorporating new genetic material, an organism can become resistant to antibiotics. E. COli was able to do this because of the adhesion zones. there are numerous small pores on the surface of E. Coli's cellular membrane. The lipeds repel the phosphates in the DNA plasmids. However, when they added the calcium ion, which had a positive charge, it made it relatively neutral. Lowering the temperature stabilizes the phospates. The heat shock makes the phosphates easier to hield. This makes it easier for DNA plasmids to enter the adhesion zones. In transduction, a virus inserts its RNA/ DNA into a bacterium which the bacterium may incorporate the viral DNA into its own DNA. The viral RNA/ DNA uses the bacterium's resoures to produce viral proteins and assemble new viruses. The new viruses will lysis the bacterial wal and splurge our, infecting other bacteria. An alternative is the bacteria incorporates the viral RNA/ DNA probably causing it to produce toxins, or it can lay dormant and be passed onto the bacterium's ofspring until environmental changes cause it to become active. We must recognize that some bacteria had been transformed by religated versions of the original plasmids. Therefore, Boyer and COhen were the first to produce recombinant plasmids.










REFERENCES:
http://www.dnalc.org/view/15916-DNA-transformation.html
google images

Time, Love, Memory

What I found most interesting in this book so far was when Benzer ate the brains of sheeps, cows, goats, pigs, and chickens. It was mentioned, "One by one [Dotty] brought them home, and one by one [Benzer] dissected them, usually in the middleo f the night. Afterward, he ate them" (70). I find this extremely distasteful. It oculd be because I was never exposed to the eating of animal brains while I was growing up and maybe Benzer was. Even if he was curios about hwo it would taste, I don't think I would have tried it. I guess he couldnt let the brains which he bought go to waste so he ended up eating them. I wondered if he shared them with Dotty and how she reacted to him doing this.

Beneficial Bacteria

ESCHERICHIA COLI

It is gramm negative and a rod shaped bacterium. it is usually found in lower intestines of warm blooded organisms and helps in digestion and absorption of food. However, variations of this bacteria can cause food poisoning. It produces vitamin K2 and can live in a wide variety of substrates.


STAPHLOCOCCUS EPIDERMIS

It is gram positive and a cocci shaped bacterium. It is found of our skin. This bacteria aids the skin by releasing certain toxins to defend us from micro organisms. They do this by taking up the space pathogenic bacteria would occupy. They are nonmotile and are also faculative anaerobes, they grow either by aerobic respiration or fermentation.


LACTOBACILLUS ACIDPHILUS

This bacteria occurs naturally in humans, animal intestines, vagina, and mouth. it is used in dairy products. It has an optimal temperture of 37 degress celsius. Certain strains of this bacteria decreases the chance of having diarhhea. It is resistent to bile, a low ph and intestinal enzymes. It is mainly used for improvement of symptoms of discomfort from lactose inteolerant.




REFERENCES:
Google images
http://web.uconn.edu/mcbstaff/graf/Student%20presentations/S%20epidermidis/sepidermidis.html
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/lactobacillus/NS_patient-acidophilus
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC426879/pdf/pnas00134-0120.pdf

Phyla of Protozoa

PHYLA SPOROZOA

There are 6000 species. It is carried in blood and can cause disease like toxoplasmosis and malaria. They are nonmotile, unicellular protists. They are commonly parasitic on vertebrate animals.

Plasmodium vivax

This single celled organism that causes malaria. These microorganims invade red blood cells where they multiply and eventually escape from ruptured cells. This disease is characterized by fevers and chills.

PHYLUM CILIOPHORA

this phylum has 8000 species. They move by using cilia. They have a pellicle, oral groove, gullet, macronucleus and a micronucleus. They reproduce by conjugation as well as fission.

Paramecium bursaria

 They form symbiotic relationship with green algae. Algae lives in its cytoplasm. The algal photosynthesis provides a food source for them.

PHYLUM SARCODINA

There are 40000 species. They are amoebas. They eat other protists andh ave cytoplasmic streaming and pseudopodia. They make limestone and chalk deposits. They cause diseases such as  amebic dysentary. They also feed on other protozoans and unicellular algae by engulfing them in its pseudopodia.

Entamoeba histolytica

They invade the digestive tracts of humans. This disease is spread by fecal contamination of drinking water, raw vegetables and careless food handlers.

PHYLUM MASTIGOPHORA

There are 2500 species. They move using flagella and most are free living. They cause diseases like zooflagellates, African trypanosomiasis which is a sleepign disease, chagas disease with is the kissing bug, leichmaniasis which is the sand fly and giardiasis.

Trypanosoma gambiense

There are two species of flagellates that transmit disease by biting flies. It then causes African sleeping sickness. If it is untreated in early stages, African sleepign sickness is potentially fatal.

REFERENCES

google images

http://chsweb.lr.k12.nj.us/mstanley/outlines/protista/protists.htm

http://inside.msj.edu/academics/faculty/davisr/potpouri/protista.htm

Comparing Bacteria, Virus, Protists, Prions

Bacteria


prokaryotic
single cellular
many move through liquids by taillike appendages called flagella or cilia
others cannot move on own
carried on animals, insects, or dust
2 micrometers long
0.5 micormeters in diameter
live in eveyr environment
causes tuberculosis, small pox, cholera
binary fission



Virus


multicellular
no self locomotion
float and bump into objects
10-300 nanometers
live in cold, dry conditions and in all types of organisms
HIV, AIDS, Influenze, Measles, herpes
cannot reproduce, replicate with the help of cells



PROTISTS


eukaryotic
mostly unicellular
move by cytoplasmic streaming or wiht the help of flagella/ cilia
200 micrometers
livein environement with liquid water
Malaria, Giardiasis
sexual reproduction through meiosis 
asexual reproduction through spores and binary fission



PRIONS


eukaryotic
unicellular
move along axions in brain
1/1000 of a bacterium
live in nervous system tissue, brain cell membrane
mad cow disease, fatal familial insomnia, chronis wasting disease
needs template of prion form to turn into another prion protein


references:
google images
book

The Lives of a Cell

This article mentions how cells are the unifying force of life on Earth. What is more astonishing that its diversity of cells such as prokaryotes, eukaryotes, or bacteria, fungi, protists, is the high probability that every one of these organisms derive, originally, from that single cell. Although the differences still set us apart in our look and size , color, etc. we all share genes that resemble one another. The reader goes one to mention how he attempts to consider the earth as an organism, but it is too complex. I do agree that on earth there are an enormous variations to show the complexities and how it is impossible to consider earth a simple organism to classify. His connection and revelation of how earth is just like a cell. I completely agree with him as he mentions this because the cell as simple as it may seem as the building blocks of our very existence has a world in itself. The cell is just as complex as the earth is with all the organelles inside the cell and with so much undiscovered knowledge the lives of a cell is a daunting task to understand.

Virtual Diffusion Simulation

The villi percentage of Cell Surface Area is fifty. The radius is times one. The cell shape has a ratio of ten to one. The number of dimples is forty. the dimple percentage of cell surface area is also one. The highest rate of diffusion is at 4.64. This is the most effective shape and size of a cell to maximize diffusion in cells because it has a high surface area while maintaining a small volume. As moleculer size increases, diffusion rates decrease. This is why villi increase the surface area of the intestine to increase absorption of nutrients.


References:
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/biolink/j_explorations/ch02expl.htm

A Fear of Phermones

In the article "A Fear of Phermones", it is mentioned how irrelevant pheromones are to humans when we have our "richness of speech, and all our new devices for communication" (16). I do believe and agree with the author that I believe that pheromones are unnecessary but they are a integrated into our every day lives. It is inconvenient however how these pheromones exist in such "strategically located apocrine glands with unaccountable areas of moisture"(16). Yet, it is still amazing how these eight of ten carbon atoms help us humans determine "how to behave to the opposite sex, how to ascertain what is the opposite sex, how to organize members of a society in the proper ranking orders of dominance, how to make out exact boundaries of real estate, and how to establish that one is, beyond argument, one's self"(17). These are the exact reason why, of all the unecessary functions in the world, pheromones are still present in animals andi n humans. This control of our behavior is of the utmost center of why pheromones are important. Although the effect is not as strong due to our more developed knowledge of communication, it is nonetheless vital to our society. One who is affected by these pheromones repulsively through extra sweat should educate themselves and use these pheromones exactly to their advantage. It is our own specific pheromones that make us all different and special and that clearly is why I ultimately disagree with the writer because our difference, our genetic variety, our special features is what makes us human.

The Cell

Microscopes provide windows to the world of the cell. Cell biologists can isolate organelle to study their functions. Prokaryotis and eukaryotic cells differ in size and complexity. Internal membranes compartmentalize the functions of a eukaryotic cell. The nucleus contains a eukaryotic cell's genetic library. Ribosomes build a cell's proteins. The nucleus contains a eukaryotic cell's genetic library. Ribosomes build a cell's proteins. The endoplasmic reticulum manufactures membranes and performs many other biosynthetic functions. The golgi apparatus finishes, sorts, and ships cell products. Lysosomes are digestive compartments. Vacuoles have diverse functions in cell maintenance. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are the main energy transformers of cells. Peroxisomes generate and degrade H2O2 in performing various metabolic functions. Providing structural support to the cell, the cytoskeleton also functions in cell motility and regulation. Plant cells are encased by cell walls. The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells functions in support, adhesion, movement, and regulation. Intercellular junctions help integrate cells into higher levels of structure and function. The cell is a living unit greater than the sum of its parts. Membrane models have evolved to fit new data. THey are fluid and are mosaics of structure and function and membrane carbohydrates are important for cell-cell recognition. A membrane's molecular organization results in selective permeability. Cell signaling evolved early in the history of life. Communicating cells maybe close together or far apart. Most signal receptors are plasma membrane proteins. In response to a signal, a cell may regulate the activities in the cytoplasm or transcription in the nucleus. Elaborate pathways amplify and specify the cell's response to signals.

Diversity of Cells

Researchers discovered viruses by studying a plant disease. A virus is a genome enclosed in a protective coat. Viruses can reproduce only within a host cell. Phages reproduce using lytic or lysogenic cycles. Animal viruses are diverse in their modes of infection adn replication. Plant viruses are serious agricultural pests. Viroids and prions are infectious agents even simpler than viruses. Viruses may have evolved form other mobile genetic elements. The short generation span of bacteria helps them adapt to changin environments. genetic recombination produces new bacterial strains. The control of gene expression enables individual bacteria to adjust their metabolism to environmental change. Bacteria and archae are the two main branches of prokaryote evolution. Nearly all prokaryotes have a cell wall external to the plasma membrane. Many prokaryotes are motile. The cellular and genomic organization of prokaryotes is fundamentallly different form that of eukaryotes. populations of prokaryotes grow and adapt rapidly. Prokaryotes can be grouped into four categories according to how they obtain energy and carbon. Photosynthesis evolved early in prokaryotic life. Moleculer systematics is leading to a phylogenic classification of prokaryotes. researchers are identifying a great diversity or archae in extreme environments andin the oceans. Prokaryotes are indispensible links in the recycling of chmical elementsin the ecosystems. many prokaryotes are symbiotic. Pathogenic prokaryotes cause many human diseases. Humans use prokaryotes in research adn technology. Systemists have split protists into many kingdoms. Protists are the most diverse of all eukaryotes. Endomembranes contributed to larger, more complex cells. Mitorchondria and plastids evolved from endosymbiotic bacteria. the eukaryotic cell is a chimera of prokaryotic ancestors. secondary endosymbiosis increased the diversity of algae. Absorptive nutrition enable fungi to live as decomposers and symbionts. extensive surface area and rapid growth adapt fungi for absorptive nutrition. Fungi disperse and reproduce by releasing spores that are produced either sexually or asexually. many fungi have a heterokaryotic stage. ecosystems depend on fungi as decomposers and symbionts. Some fungi are pathogens. Fungi are commercially important. They colonize land with plants. Fungi and animals evolved from a common protistan ancestor.

Cellular Metabolism

Cellular respiration and fermentation are catabolic, energy yielding pathways. Cells recycle the ATP they use for work. Redox reactions release energy when electrons move closer to electronegative atoms. Electron "falls" from organic molecules to oxygen during cellular respiration. the "fall" of electrons during respiration is a stepwise, via NAD+ and an electron transport chain. Respiration involve glycolysis, the krebs cycle, and electron transport. Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate. The krebs cycle completes the energyyielding oxidation of organic molecules. the inner mitochondrial membrane couples electron transport to ATP synthesis. Cellular respiration generates many ATP molecules for each sugar molecule it oxidizes. Fermentation enables some cells to produce ATP without the help of oxygen. Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways. Feedback mechanisms control cellular respiration. Plants and other autotrophs are the producers of the biosphere. Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis in plants. evidence that chloroplasts split water molecules enabled researchers to track atoms through photosynthesis. the light reactions and the calvin cycle cooperate in converting light energy to the chemical energy of food. The light reactions convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH. the calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH to convert Carbondioxide to sugar. Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation have evolved in hot arid climates. Photosynthesis is the biosphere's metabolic foundation

Photosynthesis v. Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis and Cellular respiration both use a H+ gradient to initiate ATP production. They also both use chemiosmosis and potential energy from the H+ gradient. Furthermore, both photosynthesis and cellular respiration convert energy to usable energy as well as making ATP. Additionally, they both use an Electron Transport Chain and some sort of final acceptor molecule. Lastly, they both use oxidation reactions and reduction reactions.

Differences of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are that photosynthesis used NADPH while cellular respiration uses NADH. Photosynthesis doesn't have FADH2 like cellular respiration does and photosynthesis is only in plants while cellular respiration is in both plants and animals. Photosynthesis needs light to work while cellular respiration does not. Cellular respiration happens in or near the mitochondria while photosynthesis happens in the chloroplast.   Cellular respiration is an exergonic reaction while photosynthesis is an endergonic reaction. Cellular respiration's products are Carbon dioxide and water while photosynthesis's products are glucose and oxygen.


references:
google images
bio book
http://www.worsleyschool.net/science/files/photosynthesis/page.html
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/photosynthesis-and-cellular-respiration.html
http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/kling/energyflow/psn_primer.html

C3, C4, and CAM

c3 plants have their stomata open during the day. Their photosynthesis occurs within and throughout their leaves. c3 is more efficient than c4 adn CAM plants because c3 plants requires less energy. Most of the plants that we encounter at c3 plants. Carbon dioxide was firts incorporated into three-carbon component


c4 plants also have their stomata open during the day. Although c3 plants are mroe efficient, c4 plants are faster than c3 plants under high light intensity and temperatures. Furthermore, c4 plants have better water efficiency. carbon dioxide first incorporated into four-carbon compound. An example of a c4 plant would be corn.


CAM plants or Crassulacean Acid Metabolism plants, on the other hand, have their stomata open during the night due to the fact that evaporation rates are lower during the night time. If the conditions are too extreme during the night, their stomata may close during that time period as well. CAM plants have better water efficiency than c3 plants under arid conditions and the carbon dioxide was first stored in the form of acid before use. An example of a Crassulacean Acid Metabolism plant would be cacti.


References:
google images
The Biology book
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/phoc.html
http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e24/24b.htm
http://wc.pima.edu/Bfiero/tucsonecology/plants/plants_photosynthesis.htm

Macromolecules

1. Carbohydrates

sugar, the smallest carbohydrates, serve as fuel and carbon sources. Polysaccharides, the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles.
Made of carbon, bydrogen, and oxygen


Monosaccharides and Disaccharides
Ex. Glucose, Ribose, Maltose, Lactose, Sucrose
Structure: can exist as a carbon chain, or a ring. the ring form is more stable and more prevalent at equilibrium. Disaccharides are made of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosodic linkage (an oxygen atom holding two rings together)
Function: Glucose is the principle molecule used for energy production during cellular respiration


Polysaccharides
Ex. Cellulose, Starch, Glycogen, Chitin
Sturcture: Chains of monosaccharides joined by glycosodic linkages (one oxygen atom joins 2 rings)
Function: Cellulose and chitin are structural; starch and glycogen are means of storing glucose for long periods


2. Lipids

fats store large amounts of energy

phospholipids are major components of cell membranes

steroids include cholesterol and certain hormones

made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

triglycerides

structure:1 glycerol molecule joined to 3 fatty acid molecules

function: used for insulation adn long-term energy storage

phospholipids

structure: 1 glycerol molecule joined to 2 fatty acid molecules and a phosphate group

function: primary component of cell membranes

steroids

Ex.: cholesterol, estradiol, testosterone

structure: 4 interlinked carbon rings with functional groups attached

function: hormonal functioning; some help control the fluidity of cell membranes

3. Nucleic Acids

 

nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information

a nucliec acid strand is a polymer of nucleotides

inheritance is based on replication of the DNA double helix

we can use DNA and proteins as tape measures of evolution

made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus

DNA

structure: made of repeating units of 4 nucleotides. A nucleotide is made of a phosphate group, a pentose sugar (deoxyribose, and one of four nitrogenous bases ( adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine) double stranded helix

function: stores genetic information

RNA

structure: made of repeating unit of 4 nucleotides. the pentose sugar is ribose rather than deoxyribe. the 3 bases are adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine. single-stranded

function: transfer genetic information to ribosomes for protein synthesis, carries amino acids into place, and holds ribosomal subunits together.

4. Proteins

a polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids connected in a specific sequence

a protein's function depends on its specific conformation

made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen

structure: polymers of repeating units of 20 kinds of amino acid. Amino acids are structurally similar except for one side chain that varies from acid to acid. adjacent amino acids are joined by peptide bonds. one or more polypeptide may be joined to form a protein 

function: structure, enzymes, packaging, cell to cell communication, cell recognition, immune response


Reference:
http://biomodel.uah.es/en/model3/index.htm
the Biology book 6th edition
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Biochemistry Unit Wordle

In the context of biochemistry, it begins from chemical elements and compounds. Life requires about 25 chemical compounds. Atomic structure determines the behavior of an element. Atoms combine by chemical bonding to form molecules. Weak chemical bonds play important roles in the chemistry of life. A molecule's biological function is related to its shape. Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds. The polarity of water molecules results in hydrogen bonding. organisms depend on the cohesion of water molecules water moderates temperatures on Earth. Oceans and lakes don't freeze because ice floats. Water is the solvent of life. Organisms are sensitive to pH. Acid precipitation threatens the fitness of the environment. Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. Carbon atoms are the most versatile building blocks of molecules. Variation in the carbon skeletons contributes to the diversity of organic molecules. Functional groups comtribute to the molecular diversity of life. 

Ecology Unit Wordle

When the word ECOLOGY comes up, I think of the ecosystem and biomes and the behavior of animals which all come together to become ecology. The different biomes and their specific characteristics causes the organisms in the area to behave a certain way. Between organisms, there is competition for food, shelter, water, etc. all of which creates their niche. These terms then relate to the organization and structure of the community. There are aquatic and terrestrial biomes and aquatic biomes occupy the largest part of the biosphere. Factors that affect the distribution of organisms are abiotic and biotic factors. Behavior has both proximate and ultimate causes which results from both genes and environmental factors. Social behavior creates competition.